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  Essays |
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337kB
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The theory of electrodynamics exists since more than hundred years and is
used for almost every electromagnetic application. But there still exist
debates for example about the existence of a motional electric field
outside current carrying wires. This essay examines the force between
uniform moving charges with some applications and experiments and shows a
request for an additional g -factor on the formula for the electric field
of a uniform moving charge. Two possibilities to explain this additional
factor are given.
The
electrodynamics of moving bodies has motivated Einstein
to formulate the theory of special relativity. He recognizes the all electrodynamics
processes underlying principle of relativity. Not the
movement against an aether has to be understood as the cause for electrodynamics
effects but the relative motion between two inertial
systems. With his second more fundamental postulate of the absolute
constancy of the velocity of light – independent of the velocity of the
source - Einstein’s theory was able to describe effects with
relativistic velocities much better than previous theories based on aether
concepts.
Einstein was the first who recognized that the electric and magnetic
forces depends on the movement of the associated reference frame and that
the question about the seat of the electromotive force in unipolar
induction is therefore meaningless. This can be traced back to forces
between charges only. Generally it must be possible to describe the
electromagnetic theory only as forces between charges only. Some time ago Moon
& Spencer presented a new electrodynamics without using the
magnetic field concept. This paper is an other attempt to use a
formulation without the magnetic field concept for forces between uniform
moving charges. A special case,
where this forces can be studied, is the motional electric field, first
reported by William
Hooper and later also established by Edwards
and Edwards et. al.. About a year later Bartlett and Ward
denied
the existence of this effect. Frequently some papers were published about
this effect until Lemon
et. al. changed their measurement setup
and then also claimed, that this motional electric field does not exist.
By examining the experiments cited above and by the existing theoretical
foundation the author believes, that the motional electric field really
exists, but the measurement setup greatly influences the result due to the
inductive nature of the motional electric field. Some tests of this controvert formulation of electrodynamics are given for some induction examples and also for the mostly unknown Biefeld-Brown-Effect. |
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88kB
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This paper shows a derivation of the forces of a Hertz dipole antenna acting on a resting, stationary charge. The demonstrated derivation does not use the magnetic field concept but uses the forces between resting, moving and accelerating charges only. In the second part of the paper a comparison with the standard derivation known from literature is presented. In 1888
Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz has shown the spreading of electrical energy from
one oscillator with spark gap to another distant electrical oscillator. At a
later stage the spark gap was not used anymore and it evolved this kind of
simple arrangement which is now known as Hertz-Dipole. With this circuit
Hertz has shown the transmission of electromagnetic energy from one resonant
circuit to an other in his class room.
As
theoretical basis for this experiment Hertz used the Maxwell equations from
which he derived the correct solution by applying the correct boundary
conditions for the Hertz experiment. The Hertz experiment has confirmed the
theoretical predictions in an impressive manner so that it became worldwide
known. The
discovery of the fact, that electromagnetic energy can travel through space
as an electromagnetic wave as predicted by Maxwell’s equations was of
great importance. An other important confirmation of the predictions form
Maxwell’s theory was the prove, that the oscillating plane of the
electromagnetic wave was perpendicular to the propagation direction
(transverse wave characteristics) and that in large distances there are no
oscillation parallel to the propagation direction (longitudinal waves). In
addition it was shown, that the electromagnetic wave can be reflected with a
conducting bar grid, if the bars are parallel to the antenna, and that there
are no reflections, when the bars are perpendicular to the antenna. All –this
has been used as a confirmation, that there is actually an electromagnetic
wave in the aether, as predicted by the theory. The theoretical
derivation of the Hertz experiment is done with the concept of electric and
magnetic fields. This essay shows that the well-known effects of the
so-called electromagnetic radiation can be calculated with the aid of forces
between charges only, without the use of the magnetic filed concept and
without using an electromagnetic wave equation. The result examines clearly
the cause for the different field elements near or distant to the Hertz
dipole antenna. |
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91kB
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Maxwell’s equations are the cornerstone in electrodynamics. Despite the fact that this equations are more than hundred years old, they still are subject to changes in content or notation. To get an impression over the historical development of Maxwell’s equations, the equation systems in different notations are summarized The complete set of the equations of James Clerk Maxwell are known in electrodynamics since 1865. These have been defined for 20 field variables. Later Oliver Heaviside and William Gibbs have transformed this equations into the today’s most used notation with vectors. This has not been happened without background noise, then at that time many scientists – one of them has been Maxwell himself – was convinced, that the correct notation for electrodynamics must be possible with quaternions and not with vectors. A century later Einstein introduced Special Relativity and since then it was common to summarize Maxwell’s equations with four-vectors. The search at magnetic monopoles has not been coming to an end, since Dirac introduced a symmetric formulation of Maxwell’s equations without using imaginary fields. But in this case the conclusion from the Special Theory of Relativity, that the magnetic field originates from relative motion only, can not be hold anymore. The non-symmetry in Maxwell’s equations of the today’s vector notation may have disturbed many scientists intuitively, what could be the reason, that they published an extended set of equations, which they sometime introduced for different applications. This essay summarizes the main different notation forms of Maxwell’s equations. |
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310kB
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On a congress about space energy technology in Bregenz (Austria) Konstantin Meyl has explained his theory of scalar waves in analogy to Tesla’s experiments. Then he has demonstrated an experiment which should demonstrate the existence of such (neutrino) waves. This experiment also was presented on other occasions in Germany. The discovery and the evidence of electric scalar waves would be a very important step in electrodynamics and would found a high attention by scientists. Therefore it is necessary that such a breakthrough experiment is checked intensively. With this constructive thoughts this review has been written. It should be used to find more transparency on this subject with an open discussion. For the interest of the space energy research it is essential that new effects (and especially over-unity effects) are proved unambiguous and can withstand every objective criticism. The paper gives a short introduction about the nature of scalar waves. Then the Meyl experiment - which has become widely known in Europe - is described and examined. It is shown, that the result of this experiment can be explained on the basis of current knowledge and without new assumptions of scalar waves. A fully description of the measuring arrangement is given. Then some experimental results obtained by the author are discussed. In the closing section a short analysis about Tesla's wireless system is presented |
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205kB
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After his inventions about the polyphase powering systems Nicola Tesla has focused himself more to experiments with high voltages, high currents and high frequencies. One of his goals was to transmit electrical energy without a power network directly from a central plant to the different consumers. In New York Tesla has done his first trials for this new technology. Then at the change of the century 1899-1900 Tesla moved to the high lands of Colorado Springs. There he has executed so many experiments, which has not been repeated in all its details and specialties until these days. Now, exactly one hundred years after a review about this impressive and important experiments may be of a particularly interest. It is surprising how little information can be found in literary about the work of the famous Serbian experimenter Nicola Tesla. In the contrary his antagonist Thomas Edison, which mainly promoted the direct current systems, is mentioned where ever one looks. But it was Nicola Tesla who invented the today used polyphase power system in all its part of generation, transmission and consumption. It was Tesla, not Edison, who has made the world-wide use of electricity even become possible. And today almost all publications about Tesla‘s work are looking at his high frequency and high voltage transformers, known under the summary term „Tesla-Coil". From time to time some papers has been published about this specific topic; for example for a repetition of some experiments (1952 Kelly & Dunbar; 1992 Bruns; 2000 Skeldon) about applications of this transformers (1933 Lauritson & Crane; 1935 Sloan; 1971 Abramyan) about the measurement on such devices (1983 Yost) or about some theoretical considerations (1964 Heise; 1991 Barrett). In the first part of the paper the development of Tesla's transmitting und receiving devices is summarized. In the second part a short explanation how this wireless energy transmission works is suggested by the author. |
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159kB
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Without
doubt Nikola Tesla was one of the greatest experimenters in the field of
electricity. With his inventions of the alternating and polyphase current
with all his components for generation, transmission and consumption
devices Tesla has become famous around the world. Tesla was not much
interested in the world of business. He rather continued experimenting for
many years after his success with the alternating current systems, while
his experimental capabilities has only be restricted by his always tight
funds. Especially in his second part of life Tesla has elaborated and
realized experiments which have not been reconstructed until these days.
Some of them seems to be very promising to overcome the increasing
challenges of our society in a better way. By studying many original
papers of Tesla this essay tries to reconstruct the visions and
conclusions he has got form his experiments.
But after this inventions of alternating current systems Tesla has
published many papers, which are almost forgotten. This papers will be
summarized and analyzed. It is shown very impressive that Tesla with his
experimental knowledge in physics was far ahead of the theoretical physics
of his time. Still today many phrases in this papers have never been
understood, has seldom be commented and some have become a mystery.
Almost all publication of the modern world only look at Tesla‘s work
with high frequency and high voltage transformers, better known with the
summary term "Tesla coil". But after his successful work with
the magnetic rotary field Tesla has discovered a new kind of rays which he
called radiations. It is
characteristic for an experimental discoverer that he finds unexpected and
new facts and results due to measurements and experiments based on some
new conceptual ideas. Because Tesla‘s practical know-how was so far
ahead of the theoretical know-how, the communication to the established
science was almost impossible. They didn‘t simply understand! Probably
because of this and also because of financial interests Tesla almost
stopped his publications in scientific newsletters since 1899 and since
then he only published some material in popular weekly or daily
newspapers. Only in the patents some deeper information can be found. This paper analyzes the early experiments of Tesla about Roentgen rays to find a closer description of that, what Tesla has named radiations. Based on Tesla's original papers the characteristics of this radiations are listed and analyzed. Then a comparision with the cosmic rays of today's physics is made. As a result the author suggests a new possibility, how Tesla's radiations can be interpreted and what should be done to tap them for a new and clean energy source. |
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88kB
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At the advent of Maxwell’s electrodynamics the quaternion notation was often used, but today this is replaced in all text books with the vector notation. If the founders of electrodynamics would have used the quaternion notation consequently with their most unique property – namely the four-dimensionality – they would have discovered relativity much before Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. A short description of electrodynamics with quaternions is given. As a result a new set of Maxwell’s equations is proposed, which transform in today’s equations when the Lorentz gauge is applied. In addition an application of this new quaternion notation to quantum mechanics and other disciplines is presented. One of the most emotional disputes in the late nineteenth-century electrodynamics was about the mathematical notation to use with electrodynamics equations. The today’s vector notation was not fully developed at that time and many physicist – one of them was James Clerk Maxwell – are convinced to use the quaternion notation. The quaternion was "invented" in 1843 by Sir William Rowan Hamilton. Peter Guthrie Tait was the most outstanding promoter of quaternions. On the other side Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs both decided independently that they could use a part of the quaternion system better than the entire system, why they proceeded further with that, what today is called the vector notation. Generally the vector notation used in pre-Einstein electrodynamics uses three-dimensional vectors. The quaternion on the other hand is a four-dimensional number. To make the quaternion usable for the three-dimensional electrodynamics of Maxwell, Hamilton and Tait indicated the scalar part by prefixing an ‘S’ to the quaternion and the vector part by prefixing a ‘V’. This notation was also used by Maxwell in his Treatise , where he published twenty quaternion equation with this notation. But with applying this prefixes the whole benefit of quaternions is not used. Therefore Maxwell has never done calculations with quaternions but only presented the final equations in a quaternion form. It was then merely a calculation with vectors and scalars as today practiced. This papers introduces a new quaternion notation and applies it first to electrodynamics. Then in a second step it is shown that this new notation is also very suitable for application in other physical disciplines like quantum mechanics or kinematics. A new extended form of Maxwell's equations is suggested which transform into the well-known equations if the Lorentz gauge is applied. |
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151kB
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The theory of electrodynamics can be cast into biquaternion form. Usually Maxwells equations are invariant with respect to a gauge transformation of the potentials and one can choose freely a gauge condition. For instance, the Lorentz gauge condition yields the potential Lorenz inhomogeneous wave equations. It is possible to introduce a scalar field in the Maxwell equations such that the generalized Maxwell theory , expressed in terms of potentials, automatically satisfy the Lorenz inhomogeneous wave equations, without any gauge condition. This theory of electrodynamics is no longer gauge invariant with respect to a transformation of the potentials: it is electrodynamics with broken gauge symmetry. The appearance of the extra scalar field terms can be described as a conditional current regauge that does violate the conservation of charge, and it has several consequences:
This essay was pubished with slight adaptations in: van Vlaenderen Koen and André Waser, "Generalisation of classical electrodynamics to admit a scalar field and longitudinal waves", Hadronic Journal 24 (2001) 609-628. |
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38kB
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In a recent paper we have shown that the basic equations of electrodynamics can be cast into a bi-quaternion form. In this paper I present an other general way how the set of four equations of the generalized Lorentz force can be derived by introducing a new operator: The bi-quaternion total time derivative operator. |
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41kB
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The idea of a not absolute constant speed of light is not novel at all. As well known the non constancy of the velocity of light has some implications to all laws of electrodynamics. It seems possible, that the force of gravity can be integrated into the theory of electrodynamics if the velocity of light between two charges follows a certain law. Almost all equations of electrodynamics, beginning with the theory of Eduard Wilhelm Weber, contain a constant c which represents the speed of light. The constancy of this velocity in a certain region of length (frequency) has been determined by experiments with an accuracy down to 10-10. But as it will be shown this accuracy is not sufficient to hold the postulate of the absolute constancy. It is, for example, possible, that with the smallest change of the speed of light the new appearing terms in electrodynamics equations for the force between charges can be explained as gravity. |
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12kB
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In Waser's equation,
which he has derived from the Maxwell equations, he shows a connection
with SOL and gravity. The equation appears simply as the total force =
force of gravity + electrostatic force. Inside this simple relation
unification between electromagnetism and gravity is waiting to unfold.
Waser is correct in his analysis that gravity and the variable speed of
light are connected, this follows directly from the equations.
We also know from Einstein that light is bent by spacetime curvature in
the equivalence principle since mass warps spacetime. It must follow that
anything that deforms spacetime or in more recent view, the "the
electromagnetic zero-point field vacuum energy", must also affect the
propagation of light. So we see a fundamental relationship that when
vacuum energy is altered, so to gravity and light must be affected. Or
conversely, if light propagation is curved, so also, spacetime and gravity
must change. |